Review of European and Comparative Law, 2023, Vol. 55, No. 4
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- ItemBeneficial Ownership – Demand for Transparency, Threat to Privacy(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Cindori, SonjaThe basic idea behind establishing the register of beneficial owners is to increase the transparency and accessibility of data on beneficial ownership of companies and other legal entities with the aim of ensuring the public availability of data on domestic and foreign natural and legal persons. However, the possibility of the data being accessible to the general public instead of to persons or organizations that can demonstrate a legitimate interest raised the issue of violating the principles of respect for private or family life and the protection of personal data. Consequently, this raises the question of drawing the line between contributing to the common good and fighting against money laundering and terrorist financing, on the one hand, and protecting personal data, with the possibility of their misuse, on the other. A balance as well as a response to the possibility of setting soft limits of legitimate interest that would result in the achievement of all set goals was sought in the practice of the European Court of Justice. One of the legislative solutions regarding the extent of access to data on beneficial owners for the entire public, along with the establishment of different types of registers in order to prevent money laundering and terrorist financing, is described using the example of Croatia.
- ItemBetween Enabling Law and Protecting Law – Some Remarks on the Method of Regulating the Law of Groups of Companies in Polish Commercial Companies Code(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Herbet, AndrzejAlthough the groups of companies have been an indispensable part of the modern economy for several decades, they still continue to attract unwavering attention of both practice and doctrine of corporate law. The numerous legal challenges posed by the functioning of multi-level structures, based on diverse types of dominance and dependance relations adopt different regulatory strategies manifest a universal appeal. Yet, the national legislators adopt different regulatory strategies, aimed at securing the interests of various stakeholders, including minority shareholders, dependent companies and their creditors. As a result, the contemporary discourse entails two concepts – one emphasizing the risks and responsibilities associated with it (protecting law) and the other one, supporting the creation of groups, as well as instruments for their effective management (enabling law). The aim of the article is to verify the extent to which these concepts are addressed by the most recent Polish group law regulations, viewed in a comparative context outlined by selected European jurisdictions.
- ItemCopyright Protection for Works Created by AI Technology under the EU Law and Vietnamese Law(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Le Thi, MinhThe legislation of the European Union increasingly focuses on expanding the scope of works protected by intellectual property rights, including literary works, music, films, and phonograms. The breakthrough in artificial intelligence (AI) has contributed significantly to creating works of art with little or no human intervention. The article examines the current situation of EU copyright law and Vietnamese law regarding AI-generated works. The article concludes that EU law governs copyright for these works based on the extent of human contribution to the creation of the work. Meanwhile, Vietnamese law still needs to resolve the issue of intellectual property rights for works created by AI.
- ItemCourt of Justice of the European Union and Ukrainian Legal Order: Some Pre-accession Considerations(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Haletska, Nataliya; Savchuk, AnastasiiaAs the European Union candidate country (hereinafter the EU), Ukraine is one step away from becoming an EU Member State. From this point on, the country will be subject to the influence of EU institutions, including the Court of Justice of the European Union (hereinafter the CJEU). It is suggested that upon the accession of Ukraine, the CJEU’s impact will be comparable to the influence on legal orders of other EU Members States provided necessary preparatory steps, such as training for judges, are taken. It is established that the main functions of the CJEU are to interpret and ensure the uniform application of EU law in each EU Member State, to ensure compliance with EU law by EU countries and institutions, to ensure respect for the rights and freedoms of individuals, to provide clarifications to national courts, and to promote “positive integration” and “negative integration” of EU Member States. With respect to the above-mentioned functions, it is argued that the CJEU will become an effective tool for Ukraine after it accedes to the EU. It will facilitate the harmonization of national legislation with EU standards through the application of precedents by national courts, influence the activities of legislative bodies, and help prevent future complaints by becoming an additional “quasi-supervisory” body in Ukraine. It will also provide interpretation of the EU law at the request of national courts through the preliminary rulings and procedures, protecting human rights and freedoms by enabling individuals to apply to the CJEU for protection. At the same time, arguably, Ukraine will also impact the functioning of the CJEU by increasing the caseload and appointing judges from Ukraine as well as potentially Advocate-General. Given these potential implications, certain preparatory actions, like preparing a cadre reserve, may be considered at the present moment. Finally, the authors argue that even before Ukraine’s accession, the CJEU has an indirect impact on the Ukrainian legal order. It is suggested that constitutional amendments, as well as certain institutional changes like the establishment of an impartial judicial system and empowering a Ukrainian state body with powers to execute CJEU decisions, will need to take place prior to the accession, which is a demonstration of the CJEU’s indirect influence.
- ItemEnergy Exchange, Association Agreement with the European Union and Legal Challenges for the Georgian Energy Law(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Partsvania, Maka; Gegenava, DimitryGeorgia signed an Association Agreement with the European Union in 2014, and this launched a process of approximation and harmonization with EU law. Energy law is one of the most important areas, which has to be developed and modified in accordance with the EU directives, regulations and rules of the Energy Community. Georgia took responsibility for establishing the energy exchange system and reorganizing the Georgian electricity market on a new model. In fact, these issues have not been studied, as they require, on the one hand, a very in-depth, practical knowledge of the issue and, on the other hand, erudition in the issues of legal approximation and information about the obligations assumed by the association agreement. The purpose of the article is to review the legislative regulations on the Georgian electricity market, the legal framework that defines the main principles of the market, the basis of operation, and sociopolitical and legal mechanisms of market stability. In the article, special attention will be paid to the status of the energy exchange in Georgia, its concept, its legal basis, problematic issues related to its implementation, and the future perspective. As a result of the analysis of the issues, based on the evaluation of the existing problems, the necessary legal ways of the development of energy law and the mechanisms promoting harmonization with the laws of the European Union are determined.
- ItemEvidence Limitations on the Part of the Entrepreneur in the Economic Process(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Rzewuski, MaciejThis article addresses an issue that is highly debatable both in the theory of civil procedural law and in the practice of jurisprudence, namely the entrepreneur’s right to a court and, consequently, the possibility of respecting the principle of material truth in a separate proceeding in commercial cases in the context of evidentiary limitations introduced by the legislator under the Act of 4 July 2019 amending the Code of Civil Procedure. Due to the fact that eponymous matters are complex and multifaceted, the present article shall describe and signal selected specific issues, which seem to raise the most doubts among representatives of the world of science and practitioners who apply civil law daily.
- ItemGloss to the Judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (Third Chamber) of 25 November 2021 in Case C‑488/20, Delfarma SP. Z o.o. v. Prezes Urzędu Rejestracji Produktów Leczniczych, Wyrobów Medycznych i Produktów Biobójczych(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Mełgieś, Katarzyna MałgorzataMedicinal products are a special type of goods due to their importance for human health and life, and their trade is generally under the scope of Directive 2001/83/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 November 2001 on the Community code relating to medicinal products for human use. The preamble to this act states that the essential aim of the rules governing the production, distribution and use of medicinal products must be to safeguard public health. Hence, in the above-mentioned directive, the rules related to the authorisation of medicinal products for marketing and pharmacovigilance are very important. At the same time, it should be noted that parallel import of medicinal products as a form of trade in an EU Member State in connection with their authorisation for marketing in another Member State, although it has a long tradition, has not had a clear normative pattern, and has not been subject to the scope of Directive 2001/83/EC. It is based on the achievements of the acquis communautaire developed in this area and the principle of free movement of goods (Article 34 TFEU) and its exceptions set out in Article 36 TFEU concerning the protection of human health and life. The commented judgment sets an example of one more verdict confirming the interpretation of Articles 34 and 36 TFEU, according to which national provisions of a Member State should be considered unacceptable, according to which the withdrawal of the marketing authorisation for the reference medicinal product in the country of import has the automatic effect of expiring the parallel import authorisation. At the same time, new circumstances affecting the safety of the medicinal product on the market were analysed to give the conclusion as declared in the sentence. Produkty lecznicze stanowią szczególny rodzaj towarów ze względu na ich znaczenie dla zdrowia i życia człowieka, a obrót nimi ogólnie objęty jest zakresem dyrektywy 2001/83 Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 6 listopada 2001 r. w sprawie wspólnotowego kodeksu odnoszącego się do produktów leczniczych do użytku przez ludzi. Z preambuły wynika, że zasadniczym celem przepisów regulujących produkcję, dystrybucję i stosowanie produktów leczniczych musi być ochrona zdrowia publicznego. Dlatego też w przywołanym akcie tak istotne są zagadnienia związane z dopuszczeniem produktów leczniczych do obrotu oraz nadzorem farmakologicznym. Jednocześnie należy zaznaczyć, że import równoległy produktów leczniczych jako forma obrotu w państwie członkowskim UE w związku z ich dopuszczeniem do obrotu w innym państwie członkowskim, choć ma długą tradycję, nie miał jasnego uregulowania normatywnego i nie jest objęty zakresem Dyrektywy 2001/83. Jego konstrukcja jest skonstruowana w oparciu o dorobek acquis communautaire wypracowany w tym obszarze, zgodnie z zasadą swobodnego przepływu towarów (art. 34 TFUE) i jej wyjątkami określonymi w art. 36 TFUE, dotyczącymi ochrony zdrowia i życia ludzkiego. Komentowany wyrok stanowi przykład kolejnego orzeczenia potwierdzającego wykładnię art. 34 i 36 TFUE, zgodnie z którą za niedopuszczalne należy uznać przepisy krajowe państwa członkowskiego, kiedy to cofnięcie pozwolenia na dopuszczenie do obrotu referencyjnego produktu leczniczego na terenie kraju importu, skutkuje automatycznie wygaśnięciem zezwolenia na import równoległy. Jednocześnie wskazano na okoliczności mające wpływ na bezpieczeństwo produktu leczniczego na rynku, które pozwoliły na sformułowanie wniosku zgodnego z treścią wyroku.
- ItemImplementation of the Istanbul Convention into the National Criminal Legislation in Poland(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Hypś, SławomirThe Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combatting violence against women and domestic violence (further: Istanbul Convention) became part of the Polish legal system on August 1, 2015. The ratification process of the Istanbul Convention was marked with difficulties from its very opening for signature. The provisions of the Convention have caused – and continue to arouse – a range of extreme emotions and doubts. The fierce dispute that has emerged over the implementation of the Convention in Poland at some point even led to action being taken for termination. As things have been to date, Poland has not terminated of the Istanbul Convention. Five years following ratification of the Convention, in March 2020, Poland submitted a report on the implementation of measures giving effect to its provisions into the Polish legal system, as required under the monitoring mechanism. Poland’s report was considered by GREVIO, with an assessment made of Polish legislation in this regard and an evaluation report issued in June 2021. Notwithstanding the comments that Poland made to the GREVIO report, the key conclusions of the assessment should be highlighted as regards compliance of Polish criminal legislation with the standard of protection of women against violence, including domestic violence, under the Convention. Since the Convention was opened for signature, and in particular since its ratification, the Polish legislator has introduced a range of amendments to the Criminal Code aimed at raising the standard of protection for victims of domestic violence and of effective prosecution of offenders. This text highlights the most important of these changes and presents the current state of implementation of the Istanbul Convention into Polish criminal law. Konwencja Rady Europy o zapobieganiu i zwalczaniu przemocy wobec kobiet i przemocy domowej (dalej: Konwencja Stambulska) stała się częścią polskiego porządku prawnego z dniem 1 sierpnia 2015 r. Proces ratyfikacji Konwencji Stambulskiej od samego jej otwarcia do podpisu naznaczony był trudnościami. Postanowienia Konwencji wzbudziły – i nadal budzą – szereg skrajnych emocji i wątpliwości. Ostry spór, jaki powstał w związku z wdrażaniem Konwencji w Polsce, w pewnym momencie doprowadził nawet do podjęcia działań w sprawie jej wypowiedzenia. Jak dotąd Polska nie wypowiedziała Konwencji Stambulskiej. Pięć lat po ratyfikacji Konwencji, w marcu 2020 r. Polska złożyła raport z wdrożenia działań wprowadzających w życie jej postanowienia do polskiego porządku prawnego, zgodnie z wymogami mechanizmu monitorowania. Raport Polski został rozpatrzony przez GREVIO, dokonano oceny polskiego ustawodawstwa w tym zakresie oraz wydano raport ewaluacyjny w czerwcu 2021 r. Niezależnie od uwag, jakie Polska zgłosiła do raportu GREVIO, należy podkreślić kluczowe wnioski z oceny w zakresie zgodności polskiego ustawodawstwa karnego ze standardem ochrony kobiet przed przemocą, w tym przemocą domową, na mocy Konwencji. Od chwili otwarcia Konwencji do podpisu, a w szczególności od chwili jej ratyfikacji, polski ustawodawca wprowadził do Kodeksu karnego szereg zmian mających na celu podniesienie poziomu ochrony ofiar przemocy w rodzinie oraz skutecznego ścigania sprawców. W tekście podkreślono najważniejsze z tych zmian oraz przedstawiono aktualny stan implementacji Konwencji Stambulskiej do polskiego prawa karnego.
- ItemInterconnecting Land Registers at the European Level: Technological Progress and Harmonization Aspects(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Gołaczyński, Jacek; Kaczorowska, MariaCharacterized by a substantial diversity and falling within the property law domain, land registration systems have been excluded from the European Union harmonization process. At the same time, however, cross-border access to land registry information is critical for the development of the internal market. Therefore, several ambitious strategies are being pursued at the European level to interconnect national land registers by fully exploiting the possibilities offered by the latest technological advances. This article investigates the effect of transnational cooperation initiatives aimed at interconnecting electronic land registers within the European e-Justice program for the enhancement of the integration of the real estate markets in Member States. In this respect, legal challenges connected with the standardization of land information are addressed from comparative and harmonization perspectives.
- ItemIsrael – In Search of Constitutional Common Sense(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Sadowski, PawełThe Israeli radical judicial overhaul program, aiming to seriously weaken the judiciary, has led the country to the brink of chaos and violence, with hundreds of thousands of demonstrators in the streets, society tearing itself apart and numerous sectors of society, such as medical service or reservists of IDF, announcing a suspension of their service to a nation they fear will no longer be a democracy. Despite the strong social protest, Knesset – representing an extremely right-wing coalition – adopted on the July 24, 2023 the amendment to Basic Law: The Judiciary to bar the judiciary from striking down decisions of the government and its ministers on the grounds of such decisions being unreasonable. The measure known as the reasonableness clause (standard) is rooted in English and American case law and it is frequently used in Israel to control administrative activity. It allows the courts to strike down governmental and administrative decisions and their regulations seen as having not taken into account all the relevant considerations of a particular issue, or not given the correct weight to those considerations – even if they do not violate any particular law or administrative rulings. The current right-wing coalition, led by Benjamin Netanyahu, argues that the clause as it stands gives too much power to the judiciary, especially the Supreme Court sitting as a High Court of Justice, to interfere with the actions of the executive, and that the powers of judges, who are not elected by the public, remain out of control in this procedure. Opponents of the government’s amendment argue that this standard is crucial in helping to protect civil rights that are not fully defined in Israeli law. Eliminating the standard of reasonableness will be another step towards giving the government unlimited power. It violates not only the separation of powers principle and the rule of law but it also harms the right to good administration. Irrespective of the Supreme Court’s decision on the constitutionality of the government’s amendment, the struggle to maintain the democratic principles of the Israeli system will continue. Despite the strong social protest, Knesset – representing extremely right-wing coalition –adopted on the 24th of July 2023 the amendment to Basic Law: Judiciary to bar the judiciary from striking down decisions of the government and its ministers on the basis of being unreasonable. The measure known as the reasonableness clause (standard) is rooted in English and American case law bless and it is frequently used in Israel to control the administrative activity. It allows the courts to strike down governmental and administrative decisions and their regulations seen as having not taken into account all the relevant considerations of a particular issue, or not given the correct weight to those considerations – even if they do not violate and particular law or administrative rulings. The current right-wing coalition, led by Beniamin Netanyahu, argues that the clause as it stands gives too much scope to the judiciary, especially the Supreme Court sitting as a High Court of Justice, to interfere with the actions of the executive, and that the powers of judges, who are not elected by the public, remain out of control in this procedure. Opponents to the government’s amendment argue that this standard is crucial in helping to protect civil rights that are not fully defined in Israeli law. Eliminating the standard of reasonableness will be another step towards giving the government unlimited power. It violates not only the separation of powers principle and rule of law but it also harms the right to good administration. Irrespectively of the Supreme Court's decision on the constitutionality of the government's amendment, the struggle to maintain the democratic principles of the Israeli system will continue.
- ItemLong-Term and Institutional Care: A Global Perspective and Imperative(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Kucharska, Katarzyna; Tabaszewski, RobertThis study provides an overview of the legal aspects of long-term care (LTC) and institutional care for the elderly. It investigates whether LTC services for seniors could be recognized as a distinct human right, possibly through a United Nations convention. The study explores the existence and core components of the right to LTC and examines the minimum standards for its investigation, implementation, and enforcement. Additionally, it analyzes the specific rights of seniors that contribute to the right to care for dependent persons while also considering the intersectionality of this right and its relationship with other human rights. The study investigates the legal frameworks for protecting the right to LTC in various countries and assesses legal solutions derived from general legal instruments and special standards, particularly those concerning individuals with disabilities. Furthermore, it discusses proposed laws aimed at preserving the dignity of seniors and preventing unnecessary examinations and abuse. The study ultimately evaluates whether the right to LTC is an independent right or an extension of the rights to healthcare and social security.
- ItemThe German Supply Chain Act – A Sustainable Regulatory Framework for Internationally Active Market Players?(Wydawnictwo KUL, 2023) Mittwoch, Anne-Christin; Bremenkamp, Fernanda LuisaOn January 1, 2023, the German Act on Corporate Due Diligence in Supply Chains (LkSG) entered into force. It is the most important step taken so far by the German legislature in terms of promoting corporate sustainability and protecting human rights in globalized supply chains. Unfortunately, however, it did not make use of the opportunity to take on a pioneering role in the broader comparative context. The authors conduct a critical analysis of the sustainability concept of the Act, as well as its provisions on scope and enforcement. In both aspects, the Act falls short of expectations; it does not introduce a comprehensive concept of sustainability, small and medium-sized enterprises are excluded from the scope of application, and comprehensive due diligence along the supply chain is not achieved. On the enforcement level, the main weakness of the LkSG lies in its exclusion of civil liability.